Poikilohydry in mosses an ecological limitation or opportunity Essay Example

Poikilohydry in mosses: an ecological limitation or opportunity Essay The most significant evolutionary event in the history of the plant kingdom began with the migration of aquatic photosynthetic organisms on to land approximately 475 Myr ago 1,2. Terrestrial embryophytes (referred to as embryophytes) derived from algal ancestors constitute two divisions, the bryophytes (lacking vascular tissue) and the tracheophytes (possessing vascular conducting tissues) 2. The evolutionary transition from aquatic photoautotrophs heralded the innovation of morphological and physiological characteristics critical for success in the terrestrial habitat, and consequent diversification of land plants.It has been hypothesised that early bryophyte related groups pioneered the transition from water to life on land 1,2,4. The mosses appear to be among the most ancient divisions of the land plants. Fossils of spores and gametophytes dating from the Mid Ordivician (~476 Myr) and Mid Sliurian (~432 Myr) have been discovered that closely resemble some modern bryophytes 4. Furt hermore, the remains of fossilised spore-bearing organs and vascular tissues from the Lower Devonian (~410 Myr) reveal similarity in anatomical details to living mosses 4. This paleobotanical evidence combined with phylogenetic studies suggests that groups related to extant mosses are primitive ancestors of the major taxonomic groups of terrestrial plants.In the comparatively uniform environment of aquatic life there is much less scope for variation in abiotic factors and hence natural selection. Light availability vertically through the water column is the major limiting factor. Photosynthetic organisms surrounded by water have no requirement for specialised anatomical features for water absorption, as diffusion occurs across the whole cellular surface, nor do aquatics require adaptive measures to protect against water loss through evaporation. Furthermore, a submersed plant requires no mechanical tissues as the buoyant force of water provides the necessary support 1,5. In contrast , plants entering the terrestrial environment are exposed to a greater variation in the fundamental abiotic conditions including moisture, temperature (rainforest and tundra), light and gravitation.In particular, the land environment exhibits dehydrating affects from the atmosphere and water may be continually lost through evaporation. Water and nutrients may be continuous underground, however, dependence on light requires the aboveground presence of photosynthetic tissue where water is often irregular 1,5. Therefore, suitable water relations are a prerequisite to survival on land. Embryophytes are able to tolerate the desiccating affects of the land environment and exhibit numerous morphological and physiological departures from the ancestral aquatic state. Depending on their ability to compensate for fluctuations in water supply and rate of evaporation, embryophytes may be classified as poikilohydric or homoiohydric 5.Poikilohydry as a limitationMosses represent the oldest living remnants of initial land colonisation. It can be viewed the mosses represent a primitive condition of plant development 4. Mosses can be said to represent an evolutionary intermediate between algal ancestors and the vascular plants, manifested in features that may be more in common with aquatic algae or lichens and are said not to be fully terrestrialised or having a greater reliance on water 4,5,7,8. However, moss gametophytes do exhibit innovations such as tissue differentiation (leaves, rhizoids) and primitive vascularisation 3.It is in the gametophyte form of mosses where the potential for land development in some ecological scenarios may be limited. The gametophyte does not posses a true root and vascular system (xylem or phloem) or outer cuticle, having no control over loss which can be rapid, and internal water content is in equilibrium with that of the atmosphere 3,5. This condition is said to be poikilohydric. Due to this intimate coupling with environmental moisture, mosse s may dehydrate completely in dry air (i.e. no barrier to water loss represented by the cuticle in higher plants)3. Although many moss species can withstand desiccation by dormancy, this comes at an expense of suspending growth and metabolism. They are dependent on availability of free water and mineral slats at the land surface as they do not possess true roots, with rhizoids present for anchorage on the substratum 3. As the root system is deficient, mosses depend largely upon the direct absorption of water through the leaves. Owing to the failure of the gametophyte to produce true vascular tissue with support structures they are unable to attain large dimensions or growth above ground exhibited in higher plants 3,5.Sexual reproduction is facilitated by water (as in algae) via motile male gametes. Only when mosses are covered water can the reproductive organs open and permit the sperm to escape and penetrate the open neck of the archegonium, and thus reach the egg cell. In this reg ard mosses are essentially amphibious in nature, i.e. they require uninterrupted access to water for reproductive success 3,8. As a result mosses may typically be found hugging wet soil, or living in permanently moist habitats, avoiding exposure to turbulent drier air found above the land surface 3,8.Mosses are also set apart from vascular plants on the basis that the non-sexual sporophyte is permanently associated with the gametophyte and never establishes on the substrate. Within higher plants it is recognised that dominance in the land environment is derived from sporophyte of basal archegoniate lineages 2,8. It is evident that in the evolution of the sporophyte, the most significant fact is the progressive reduction of the spore product and increasing dominance of the sporophyte generation in the plants life-cycle, compared with the gametophyte 2. In liverworts the life-cycle of the sporophyte is brief, its exclusive function being in spore production.In mosses the growth period of the sporophyte is greatly prolonged and spore production becomes less important. This trend towards increasing subordination of the gametophyte and increasing importance of the sporophyte in mosses may be manifested in tissue differentiation found in the sporophyte 2. It is evident that the sporophyte of mosses possesses vascular tissue with photosynthetic cells 3. Although the sporophyte is able prolong growth on account of the production of green tissue, it is still dependent on the gametophyte for water. In higher plants, by the development of the root to acquire water from subterranean sources, the sporophyte becomes truly independent 4,.In contrast to the level of developmental complexity present in mosses, it can be argued that homoiohydric characters exhibited in the tracheophytes; a lignified vascular system of xylem and phloem, an impermeable cuticle surrounding vegetative tissues, stomata and seed in higher tracheophytes are a higher state of plant organisation and the ultimate solution to the problem of adaptation to life on land, providing greater independence from water 5. The properties of vascular tissue allow the formation of a transport system conducting water and photosynthate around the multicellular body, thus allowing the development of large complex bodies of roots and leaves7. Additionally, lignified vascular tissue provides a means of mechanical support in large tracheophytes allowing for the erect habit, in contrast to the dorsiventrally flattened posture in mosses7.With an extensive root network, the homoiohydric system allows the maintenance of activity despite sudden changes in humidity as roots penetrate readily available subterranean sources of water i.e. greater period of growth than mosses7. The waterproof cuticle provides a means of reducing water loss trough evaporation and also a barrier to gaseous diffusion. The stomata perforating the cuticles provide avenues for gas exchange, however, also presenting a sight of water l oss. The guard cells limit the rate at which water is lost through stomatal openings via transpiration7. These adaptations exert greater control over water economy and are thus seen to be more effective and dependable than the bryophytic strategy.The tendency in tracheophytes has been to develop reproductive strategies which did not depend on the existence of standing water (e.g., pollen, seeds, flowers). Instead of developing swimming sperm, male gametes are carried in pollen grains from microsporangia with pollination achieved via entrainment into wind or through insects. The development of the seed habit has facilitated the adjustment of plants to strictly terrestrial conditions, with the angiosperms reaching the most perfect expression of the plant organism. Seeds are specialised to resist adverse conditions and can remain dormant until conditions are suitable for germination. Furthermore, the seed may be modified to facilitate dispersal from the parent gametophyte. Thus tracheo phytes have become sufficiently productive to form closed cover over large areas, and is ultimately manifested in the enormous global coverage of phytomass.Poikilohydry as an opportunityWithout a doubt, vascular plants are adaptive optimums within habitats charaterised by adequate soil water. However, the homoiohydric system has success within certain limits defined by temperature and the availability of water 5,7. Mosses are the successors of ecological niches characterised by intermittent water availability due to their ability suspend metabolism during periods of drought (escaping the need for metabolic function) and resume activity rapidly with available water 3,5,6. This feature is known as desiccation tolerance (DT) and is common to various functionally dissimilar species. For poikilohydrous organisms in general, and bryophytes in particular, DT can be argued to be an optimal adaptation to habitats characterised by extreme fluctuations in water availability (i.e. functionally specialised stress-tolerators)3,5. The pervasiveness of mosses in dry habitats provides an alternative perspective on mosses in contrast to the tone already set in this paper.As mosses rapidly equilibrate internal moisture with that of the environment, mechanisms allowing tolerance of dry periods is essential 6. DT is characteristic of a variety of moss gametophytes, and is common of both xeric and mesic habitats 3. DT mosses may colonise rocky, thin soil (drought prone) substrates impenetrable to roots and the bark of trees 5. DT is an obvious adaptive advantage in habitats characterised dry, sun-exposed rock surfaces with intermittent rain. Even in wet climates, moisture is not available continuously. For example, hard substrates dry quickly after rain stops, therefore, DT mosses would possess fitness in this niche5. In this situation it would be an advantage to be small in size1. Growth and reproduction occur only during these wet seasons, but upon drying the gametophyte can susp end metabolism for considerable time periods7. Desiccation tolerance is well documented in mosses.Tortula ruralis can be reduced to 20% of its original weight in 2 hours and even after prolonged periods (10 months) of desiccation resumes metabolic activity within minutes of receiving an adequate water supply7. Andreadea rothii is characteristic of hard acidic mountain rocks, and can recommence normal metabolism after 12 months desiccation at 32% rh and 20OC 5. Recovery takes place quickly, and depends on the conservation of cellular components through the drying-re-wetting cycle5. Chlorophyll-fluorescence measurements show that photosystem recovery after re-hydration is rapid9.The recovery of respiration after prolonged desiccation similarly shows recovery in mosses5. It has been suggested that recovery after desiccation involves the reestablishment of membrane integrity and photosystems10.At the scale of a moss gametophyte colony, surface tension is determines the distribution of w ater around the vegetative tissue5. Therefore, shoots and leaves tend to lie dorsiventrally flattened on the laminar atmospheric boundary5. The LAI of the moss leaf canopies tends to be greater than that of vascular plants and is comparable in some species (Scleropodium spp.) to the mesophyll/leaf-area quotients of vascular plants indicating scale as important determinants of morphology5. Additionally, it can be noted that mosses and vascular plants have similar rates of photosynthesis on a per-chlorophyll basis5. The physical structure of many mosses allows the short term storage of external capillary water3. The hydroid conducting cells of some large mosses (e.g. Polytrichaceae, Dawsoniaceae) may be an evolutionary parallel to the xylem tissue of vascular plants in that both represent a low resistance pathway for water transport3,5. However, typically water movement is extracellular involving intricate conducting structures.The ability of bryophytes to survive desiccation is attri buted to conservation of polyribosomes during desiccation period3,6. In Tortula after 90 minutes in a dry atmosphere, a decline in fresh weight by 20% was observed6. However, it retained distinct polyribosome pools which increased with increasing hydration time3. This is in contrast to vascular plants where extreme water stress induces an irreversible degredation in polyribosome activity. In addition there is evidence to suggest that the activity of antioxidant enzymes is a response in mosses and other DT organisms to oxidative stress induced by desiccation11. Oxidative damage has been shown to be less in DT organisms such as Tortula than desiccation sensitive vascular plants12.In mosses there exists species specific differences in relation to their desiccation tolerance3. It has been observed that mosses characteristic of exposed habitats such as Tortula ruralis can recover rapidly after desiccation5. This may be an adaptation to maximise growth during a water regime that is transi ent. This is in contrast to forest-floor dwellers such as Rhytidiadelphus loreus where recovery of photosynthesis following drying takes several hours more5.There exists approximately 14000 species of moss exhibiting world-wide distribution and are able to grow luxuriantly in the humid climate of temperate and tropical regions.3 Fundamentally, mosses are able to persist in extreme conditions of arctic and alpine regions and can tolerate semi-arid conditions. Largely associated with their remarkable regeneration capacity, mosses exhibit great diversity in the ecological conditions in which they can pervade, proving in particular habitats to be the adaptively optimum plant organism. Poikilohydry in mosses an ecological limitation or opportunity Essay Example Poikilohydry in mosses: an ecological limitation or opportunity Essay The most significant evolutionary event in the history of the plant kingdom began with the migration of aquatic photosynthetic organisms on to land approximately 475 Myr ago 1,2. Terrestrial embryophytes (referred to as embryophytes) derived from algal ancestors constitute two divisions, the bryophytes (lacking vascular tissue) and the tracheophytes (possessing vascular conducting tissues) 2. The evolutionary transition from aquatic photoautotrophs heralded the innovation of morphological and physiological characteristics critical for success in the terrestrial habitat, and consequent diversification of land plants.It has been hypothesised that early bryophyte related groups pioneered the transition from water to life on land 1,2,4. The mosses appear to be among the most ancient divisions of the land plants. Fossils of spores and gametophytes dating from the Mid Ordivician (~476 Myr) and Mid Sliurian (~432 Myr) have been discovered that closely resemble some modern bryophytes 4. Furt hermore, the remains of fossilised spore-bearing organs and vascular tissues from the Lower Devonian (~410 Myr) reveal similarity in anatomical details to living mosses 4. This paleobotanical evidence combined with phylogenetic studies suggests that groups related to extant mosses are primitive ancestors of the major taxonomic groups of terrestrial plants.In the comparatively uniform environment of aquatic life there is much less scope for variation in abiotic factors and hence natural selection. Light availability vertically through the water column is the major limiting factor. Photosynthetic organisms surrounded by water have no requirement for specialised anatomical features for water absorption, as diffusion occurs across the whole cellular surface, nor do aquatics require adaptive measures to protect against water loss through evaporation. Furthermore, a submersed plant requires no mechanical tissues as the buoyant force of water provides the necessary support 1,5. In contrast , plants entering the terrestrial environment are exposed to a greater variation in the fundamental abiotic conditions including moisture, temperature (rainforest and tundra), light and gravitation.In particular, the land environment exhibits dehydrating affects from the atmosphere and water may be continually lost through evaporation. Water and nutrients may be continuous underground, however, dependence on light requires the aboveground presence of photosynthetic tissue where water is often irregular 1,5. Therefore, suitable water relations are a prerequisite to survival on land. Embryophytes are able to tolerate the desiccating affects of the land environment and exhibit numerous morphological and physiological departures from the ancestral aquatic state. Depending on their ability to compensate for fluctuations in water supply and rate of evaporation, embryophytes may be classified as poikilohydric or homoiohydric 5.Poikilohydry as a limitationMosses represent the oldest living remnants of initial land colonisation. It can be viewed the mosses represent a primitive condition of plant development 4. Mosses can be said to represent an evolutionary intermediate between algal ancestors and the vascular plants, manifested in features that may be more in common with aquatic algae or lichens and are said not to be fully terrestrialised or having a greater reliance on water 4,5,7,8. However, moss gametophytes do exhibit innovations such as tissue differentiation (leaves, rhizoids) and primitive vascularisation 3.It is in the gametophyte form of mosses where the potential for land development in some ecological scenarios may be limited. The gametophyte does not posses a true root and vascular system (xylem or phloem) or outer cuticle, having no control over loss which can be rapid, and internal water content is in equilibrium with that of the atmosphere 3,5. This condition is said to be poikilohydric. Due to this intimate coupling with environmental moisture, mosse s may dehydrate completely in dry air (i.e. no barrier to water loss represented by the cuticle in higher plants)3. Although many moss species can withstand desiccation by dormancy, this comes at an expense of suspending growth and metabolism. They are dependent on availability of free water and mineral slats at the land surface as they do not possess true roots, with rhizoids present for anchorage on the substratum 3. As the root system is deficient, mosses depend largely upon the direct absorption of water through the leaves. Owing to the failure of the gametophyte to produce true vascular tissue with support structures they are unable to attain large dimensions or growth above ground exhibited in higher plants 3,5.Sexual reproduction is facilitated by water (as in algae) via motile male gametes. Only when mosses are covered water can the reproductive organs open and permit the sperm to escape and penetrate the open neck of the archegonium, and thus reach the egg cell. In this reg ard mosses are essentially amphibious in nature, i.e. they require uninterrupted access to water for reproductive success 3,8. As a result mosses may typically be found hugging wet soil, or living in permanently moist habitats, avoiding exposure to turbulent drier air found above the land surface 3,8.Mosses are also set apart from vascular plants on the basis that the non-sexual sporophyte is permanently associated with the gametophyte and never establishes on the substrate. Within higher plants it is recognised that dominance in the land environment is derived from sporophyte of basal archegoniate lineages 2,8. It is evident that in the evolution of the sporophyte, the most significant fact is the progressive reduction of the spore product and increasing dominance of the sporophyte generation in the plants life-cycle, compared with the gametophyte 2. In liverworts the life-cycle of the sporophyte is brief, its exclusive function being in spore production.In mosses the growth period of the sporophyte is greatly prolonged and spore production becomes less important. This trend towards increasing subordination of the gametophyte and increasing importance of the sporophyte in mosses may be manifested in tissue differentiation found in the sporophyte 2. It is evident that the sporophyte of mosses possesses vascular tissue with photosynthetic cells 3. Although the sporophyte is able prolong growth on account of the production of green tissue, it is still dependent on the gametophyte for water. In higher plants, by the development of the root to acquire water from subterranean sources, the sporophyte becomes truly independent 4,.In contrast to the level of developmental complexity present in mosses, it can be argued that homoiohydric characters exhibited in the tracheophytes; a lignified vascular system of xylem and phloem, an impermeable cuticle surrounding vegetative tissues, stomata and seed in higher tracheophytes are a higher state of plant organisation and the ultimate solution to the problem of adaptation to life on land, providing greater independence from water 5. The properties of vascular tissue allow the formation of a transport system conducting water and photosynthate around the multicellular body, thus allowing the development of large complex bodies of roots and leaves7. Additionally, lignified vascular tissue provides a means of mechanical support in large tracheophytes allowing for the erect habit, in contrast to the dorsiventrally flattened posture in mosses7.With an extensive root network, the homoiohydric system allows the maintenance of activity despite sudden changes in humidity as roots penetrate readily available subterranean sources of water i.e. greater period of growth than mosses7. The waterproof cuticle provides a means of reducing water loss trough evaporation and also a barrier to gaseous diffusion. The stomata perforating the cuticles provide avenues for gas exchange, however, also presenting a sight of water l oss. The guard cells limit the rate at which water is lost through stomatal openings via transpiration7. These adaptations exert greater control over water economy and are thus seen to be more effective and dependable than the bryophytic strategy.The tendency in tracheophytes has been to develop reproductive strategies which did not depend on the existence of standing water (e.g., pollen, seeds, flowers). Instead of developing swimming sperm, male gametes are carried in pollen grains from microsporangia with pollination achieved via entrainment into wind or through insects. The development of the seed habit has facilitated the adjustment of plants to strictly terrestrial conditions, with the angiosperms reaching the most perfect expression of the plant organism. Seeds are specialised to resist adverse conditions and can remain dormant until conditions are suitable for germination. Furthermore, the seed may be modified to facilitate dispersal from the parent gametophyte. Thus tracheo phytes have become sufficiently productive to form closed cover over large areas, and is ultimately manifested in the enormous global coverage of phytomass.Poikilohydry as an opportunityWithout a doubt, vascular plants are adaptive optimums within habitats charaterised by adequate soil water. However, the homoiohydric system has success within certain limits defined by temperature and the availability of water 5,7. Mosses are the successors of ecological niches characterised by intermittent water availability due to their ability suspend metabolism during periods of drought (escaping the need for metabolic function) and resume activity rapidly with available water 3,5,6. This feature is known as desiccation tolerance (DT) and is common to various functionally dissimilar species. For poikilohydrous organisms in general, and bryophytes in particular, DT can be argued to be an optimal adaptation to habitats characterised by extreme fluctuations in water availability (i.e. functionally specialised stress-tolerators)3,5. The pervasiveness of mosses in dry habitats provides an alternative perspective on mosses in contrast to the tone already set in this paper.As mosses rapidly equilibrate internal moisture with that of the environment, mechanisms allowing tolerance of dry periods is essential 6. DT is characteristic of a variety of moss gametophytes, and is common of both xeric and mesic habitats 3. DT mosses may colonise rocky, thin soil (drought prone) substrates impenetrable to roots and the bark of trees 5. DT is an obvious adaptive advantage in habitats characterised dry, sun-exposed rock surfaces with intermittent rain. Even in wet climates, moisture is not available continuously. For example, hard substrates dry quickly after rain stops, therefore, DT mosses would possess fitness in this niche5. In this situation it would be an advantage to be small in size1. Growth and reproduction occur only during these wet seasons, but upon drying the gametophyte can susp end metabolism for considerable time periods7. Desiccation tolerance is well documented in mosses.Tortula ruralis can be reduced to 20% of its original weight in 2 hours and even after prolonged periods (10 months) of desiccation resumes metabolic activity within minutes of receiving an adequate water supply7. Andreadea rothii is characteristic of hard acidic mountain rocks, and can recommence normal metabolism after 12 months desiccation at 32% rh and 20OC 5. Recovery takes place quickly, and depends on the conservation of cellular components through the drying-re-wetting cycle5. Chlorophyll-fluorescence measurements show that photosystem recovery after re-hydration is rapid9.The recovery of respiration after prolonged desiccation similarly shows recovery in mosses5. It has been suggested that recovery after desiccation involves the reestablishment of membrane integrity and photosystems10.At the scale of a moss gametophyte colony, surface tension is determines the distribution of w ater around the vegetative tissue5. Therefore, shoots and leaves tend to lie dorsiventrally flattened on the laminar atmospheric boundary5. The LAI of the moss leaf canopies tends to be greater than that of vascular plants and is comparable in some species (Scleropodium spp.) to the mesophyll/leaf-area quotients of vascular plants indicating scale as important determinants of morphology5. Additionally, it can be noted that mosses and vascular plants have similar rates of photosynthesis on a per-chlorophyll basis5. The physical structure of many mosses allows the short term storage of external capillary water3. The hydroid conducting cells of some large mosses (e.g. Polytrichaceae, Dawsoniaceae) may be an evolutionary parallel to the xylem tissue of vascular plants in that both represent a low resistance pathway for water transport3,5. However, typically water movement is extracellular involving intricate conducting structures.The ability of bryophytes to survive desiccation is attri buted to conservation of polyribosomes during desiccation period3,6. In Tortula after 90 minutes in a dry atmosphere, a decline in fresh weight by 20% was observed6. However, it retained distinct polyribosome pools which increased with increasing hydration time3. This is in contrast to vascular plants where extreme water stress induces an irreversible degredation in polyribosome activity. In addition there is evidence to suggest that the activity of antioxidant enzymes is a response in mosses and other DT organisms to oxidative stress induced by desiccation11. Oxidative damage has been shown to be less in DT organisms such as Tortula than desiccation sensitive vascular plants12.In mosses there exists species specific differences in relation to their desiccation tolerance3. It has been observed that mosses characteristic of exposed habitats such as Tortula ruralis can recover rapidly after desiccation5. This may be an adaptation to maximise growth during a water regime that is transi ent. This is in contrast to forest-floor dwellers such as Rhytidiadelphus loreus where recovery of photosynthesis following drying takes several hours more5.There exists approximately 14000 species of moss exhibiting world-wide distribution and are able to grow luxuriantly in the humid climate of temperate and tropical regions.3 Fundamentally, mosses are able to persist in extreme conditions of arctic and alpine regions and can tolerate semi-arid conditions. Largely associated with their remarkable regeneration capacity, mosses exhibit great diversity in the ecological conditions in which they can pervade, proving in particular habitats to be the adaptively optimum plant organism.

Essay On Leadership and Strategy Evaluation Essays

Essay On Leadership and Strategy Evaluation Essays Essay On Leadership and Strategy Evaluation Essay Essay On Leadership and Strategy Evaluation Essay Definition Of a Leadership It is widely accepted that leaders play a critical role in organizations and communities. However, the definition of a leader has been controversial. According to Locke (2009), leadership is defined as a process that involves inducing others so that they can take action whose end is the achievement of a common goal. To Locke and Sadler (2003), leadership incorporates three elements: a relational concept, a process, and an action. Leadership does not exist except when one is talking about the relation with followers. The absence of followers implies the absence of leadership. When defined in relational concept, effective leaders have been described as those who are good in inspiring and relating to their followers. Leadership has also been defined regarding a process in that for one to be described as a leader, he/she must do something. To proponents of this theory, leadership involves more than just holding a title or any other position of authority. However, although a formalized po sition of authority can exist to facilitate a leadership process, Locke argued that simply occupying such a position is not enough to make one a leader. A leader is also required to induce others to take some form of action, and a leader can employ various approaches to induce their followers to take some action toward a common goal. Some of the approaches leaders can employ to induce his followers to take action include modeling by setting an example, organizational restructuring, communicating a vision, legitimate authority, team building, goal setting, and rewarding and punishing (Locke, 1999). It has been argued that the way leaders implement plans, provide direction to their followers, and motivate their people to varying from one leader to another thereby resulting in various leadership styles. Some of the leadership styles include autocratic, Laissez-Faire, participative, transactional, and transformational (Johnson, 2017; Northouse, 2012). Johnson (2017) described participative leader as one who employs a democratic style of leadership. Such leaders value input from peers and team members. However, the responsibility of making the final decisions rely on the leader. On the other hand, transactional leaders provide either rewards or punishments to peers or team members according to their performance results. Transformational leaders, however, rely on a high level of communication to their team members to meet their goals. Such leaders motivate their followers or employees and enhance efficiency and productivity through a combination of high visibility and communication. A transformational style of leadership requires that the management is highly involved in the achievement of the organizational goals. Leaders who employ transformational leadership style focus on the big organizational picture and delegate smaller assignments or tasks to the team members to accomplish so that they can achieve the overall organizational goal (Johnson, 2017). Northouse (2012) added that transformational leadership involves a process where the leader engages with followers and creates a connection that boosts not only the level of morality but also the level of motivation for both the follower and the leader. He further pointed out that transformational leaders are attentive to the needs as well as motives of their followers and strive to make sure that their followers reach their fullest potential. In the case of Booker and Newark residents (Cohen, 2014; Russakoff, 2014), Booker strived to ensure that the people of Newark access the best education system in the coun try. He wanted to make Newark public school system to be a model of how best public schools should be run in the country. Bookers idea was to transform one of the worst performing public education systems to be the best it can be in the whole country. His chances of success in this endeavor were going to be influenced by many factors. Organizational Performance Improvement Leaders not only have a potential to improve organizational performance but also a failure of organizations to achieve their performance goals. A study of leadership styles suggests that leaders can influence their organizations in various ways. Choudhary, Akhtar, and Zaheer (2013) examined the influence of two comparative leadership styles on the outcomes of organizational performance. Their findings suggest that transformational leadership has more influence on organizational learning than servant leadership. The researchers further found out that a higher level of organizational learning is responsible for a higher organizational performance. The authors then suggested that leaders can choose a style of leadership that can help them to achieve what they want to achieve in their organizations. Their results are similar to those of Noruzy et al. (2013) who also found out that transformational leadership has a strong influence on the organizational learning as well as knowledge manag ement. Transformational leadership style also has a huge impact on the innovation within an organization. Overall, the researchers findings revealed that transformational leadership has an influence on the organizational performance. Leaders who wish to enhance their organizational performance can, therefore, opt to choose transformational leadership style. Although a lot has been studied on how leadership can influence organizational performance, Peterson, Smith, Martorana, Owens (2003) argued that leaders are also responsible for the failure of their organizations. According to the authors, leadership personality is one of the factors that can determine organizational success and organizational failure. They pointed out that if the top leadership personality is bad, the organization can increase the chances of organizational failure. However, if the personality of the top leaders in an organization is appropriate, the organization has an increased chance of succeeding in its miss ion. Newark schools had been performing poorly for a very long time. Booker had noted declining performance and had yearned for a time when he can intervene. His time to transform the poor education system of Newark came after his election as a mayor for Newark. The Newark education system was in a crisis. In situations of crisis, leaders emerge. Leadership involves motivating others toward a common goal. In the context of Newark education system, the common goal was to improve the declining academic standards and create a national model on how to overhaul an entire school district. As a leader, Booker believed that he was the much-needed leader to lead the Newark out of the education crisis. Booker had a vision of turning Newark education system to be the best in the country. Booker noted that to succeed in turning his vision into reality, one of the most critical resources was funding. Consequently, as a determined leader, he sought funds from philanthropists to help him achieve his vis ion. After communicating his vision for Newark, many philanthropists donated their money to help Booker realize his vision. One of the people who was attracted by Bookers vision was Mark Zuckerberg who donated his $100 million to help in the transformation of the Newark education system (Russakoff, 2014). After obtaining sufficient funds, it was time to implement his vision to bring an overhaul of the education system. Although Booker had demonstrated exemplary leadership skills and transformative ideas about the Newark education system, he failed to realize that implementation of a vision requires the cooperation of more people than financiers. At some point, Booker was reminded by Zuckerberg to choose a competent leader who can become the Superintendent. As a good leader, Booker need not be reminded about the need recruit a person to lead the change or the characteristics of a person who could help transform the failing education system of the Newark. Zuckerberg idea to Booker was that he should choose a transformational leader as an assurance that the vision of transforming the Newark education system was going to be successful. Booker had spent a lot of time looking for the funds, but he dedicated little time in investing in proper leadership structures. For example, he should develop a sound leadership structure that was going to work with him to implement the vision. A sound leadership struct ure would have helped him to plan how the funds would be obtained and how it would be spent. Furthermore, the leadership structure would have devised better ways in which the funds obtained was going to be effectively utilized. Booker had a very weak leadership structure. He only managed to appoint Superintendent in a hurry. Although Anderson, the superintendent, demonstrated that she was up to the task, still there was a lot of weakness in the overall leadership structure. Anderson manner of engagement won the hearts of many people suggesting that she had good leadership skills. However, Anderson came without an agenda but a clear vision. According to her, the most important thing was to define success, and she found it as something simple. This is a further indication of poor leadership in the transformation process. This was demonstrated in the manner in which the decisions were made. From the given information, there was poor decision making in matters pertaining the education s ystem of Newark. Booker and Anderson made key decisions without making a second thought to find out if they were going to work or they were going to face some challenges. Throughout the, there is no evidence of the presence of a sound leadership structure. Newark Education System The promise of $100 million gifts was made by Zuckerberg. However, several months later, Booker, the Senator, and Christie, the governor had neither a good transformational leader not a reform plan for the education system. This demonstrates a leadership ineptitude since both would have nominated people they were going together early so that they can prepare reform plan as a team. In fact, it was not until Zuckerberg send a mail to Booker that he began to search for competent superintend. Although Booker had sold the vision to the people, people only realized that the plan to overhaul the Newark education system was just good only on paper. According to the critics of the transformation plan, the solutions were poorly thought out, and they could make negligible positive impacts on the education system. The education programs that were going with the new education system had not been developed while transportation was not even fully tackled. Further, things that were initially promise d were never realized. Bookers idea of educational transformation in Newark failed because of lack of clear strategy. There was too much focus on securing financial assets but little time was devoted to organizing a strong team that was going to draft a working strategy. Not only did Booker and Anderson failed in the development of a sound leadership structure but also in their approach. Booker and Andersons approach suggest that their ideas were final. They believe that the ideas they had were the one people had been waiting for. The two leaders forget the importance of involving those whom the change was going to affect: stakeholders. Following the lack of the major stakeholders, there was weak support from the public. The best approach would have been to make the people of Newark also own the process of transformation by giving them a chance to contribute toward the transformation process. For example, there was a need to inform the people about the need for the change, how the change could be brought about, and who were going to be affected by the change. The strategy employed by Booker and Christie was a top-down approach where there was minimum interaction with the members of the public. And when the public was involved, it was later in the stages of the implementation. For example, a community advisory committee which was to help in the implementation of the N ewark transformation plan was created two years after the money had been released when most of the money had been spent on teacher contracts and charter schools. This implies they were created at a time their contribution to the effective management of the funds were no longer important.; The case of addressing Newark;s school;s problems give an excellent case on leadership practices, traits, team leadership, and organizational elements that were responsible for the overall outcome of the process. Through their practices, leaders can shape the outcome of the organizational goals. For example, Booker had a good vision of transforming Newark poorly performing public schools to charters. He believed that by converting a public school to run charters independently, the performance would improve. According to the Leadership Challenge (2017), five practices of exemplary leadership include modeling the way, inspiring a shared vision, challenging the process, enabling others to act, and encouraging others to act. Booker modeled the way by coming up with an idea of transforming Newark schools. He identified the problems facing public schools and the advantages that can be gained by changing public schools to charters. He also identified the challenges of running chartered scho ols. One of the great obstacles was funding. Through his practice of shared vision, Booker sold his idea to many people especially the corporate philanthropists who were willing to make a change in Newark. Booker;s inspired others by selling his vision, and in the process, several philanthropists including Zuckerberg contributed the necessary finances that were needed to achieve the vision of education excellence in Newark. Booker knew that transforming the public schools to charters was not an easy process because not all people share the same idea. However, he went ahead to challenge the process and introduce the changes anyway. This is where he went wrong. Instead of seeking the participation of many stakeholders including the members of the public, Booker seemed to push the idea on the people through Anderson. Consequently, he receives little public support during the implementation of his strategy. He would have succeeded if he had sought public support before introducing the c hanges. The people need to understand why the changes were necessary and how the changes could benefit them. Further, they would have also felt proud by owning the process of change. One of the practices of exemplary leaders is also their willingness to enable others to act. To implement his ideas, Booker knew that he needed people to help him. As a result, he appointed Anderson and gave her all the necessary support to ensure that the plans were implemented successfully.; Newark School System Leaders possess various traits which characterize them which include emotional stability, dominance, enthusiasm, conscientiousness, social boldness, tough-mindedness, self-assurance, and compulsiveness. Other traits include high energy, intuitiveness, maturity, team orientation, empathy, and charisma.; ;In the case of Newark school systems transformation, leaders involved in the transformation process demonstrated some of these traits.; For example, Zuckerberg and other philanthropists like Bill Gates were so emphatic about the school children in Newark that they offered their monetary help to transform the situation. However, in his approach to the transformation process, Booker demonstrated poor intuitiveness. He failed to evaluate all the factors that were necessary to make the plan successful and also factors that were going to be barriers toward the realization of his vision. High energy is a trait of a good leader. Booker had high energy, and he spent a lot of time persuading, traveling, and selling his vision of the transformation of the education system in Newark until he attracted a lot of attention. Dominance is another trait that can be observed from Booker and Anderson. Both demonstrated the ability to be assertive in their thinking styles and also in their attitude in which they dealt with others. Zuckerberg, Booker, Christie, and Anderson (Cohen, 2014) demonstrated a lot of enthusiasm in the education transformation in Newark. All the four were expressive, energetic, and active in ensuring that the change process was implemented. On the trait of tough-mindedness, Booker showed that he was tough-mind when he chose to proceed with the reform process while he knew that some people were not comfortable with the process. Both Anderson and Booker also demonstrated that they were self-assured leaders. They exhibited self-confidence and resilience in their actions. For example, when the first plan failed to produce positive changes, Anderson came up with the second plan that was known as One Newark (Moss, 2014) which she believed it could work. During the transformation, the leaders exhibited a lot of teamwork. They worked for hand in hand to draft plans and supervise the implementation. They also worked together to overcome obstacles that were standing in the way of the reform process. The reform process, however, became a failure despite billions spent on the consultancy and implementation of the recommendations suggested by the consultants. Opponents of the reform process argue that the failure was caused by several assumptions (Kamenetz, 2011). The Booker;s team ought to have included the participation of many stakeholders so that they could also contribute towards the success of the plan.; It has been shown that successful leaders possess certain traits (Kirkpatrick ; Locke, 1991; Zaccaro, Kemp, ; Bader, 2004). Alternatively, leaders who are not successful do not possess traits that are common among successful leaders. According to Kreitner (2008), modern leaders ought to be emotionally intelligent. Goleman in Kreitner (2008) pointed out that emotionally intelligent leaders ought to possess traits such as self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, and relationship management. Courage has also been identified as an appropriate leadership trait and includes the elements of purpose, will, rigor, candor, and risks (Kreitner, 2008). Other characteristics that have been identified to be common among successful leaders include empathy, consistency, honesty, direction, communication, flexibility, and conviction. According to Tracy (n.d.), the seven characteristics of highly effective leaders are a vision, cooperation, courage, integrity, focus, humility, and strategic planning.; Booker and his team will have been successful if they possess all these traits. They would have managed to transform the Newark education system into the nation;;s best as they had visualized initially.;

Behaviour modification

The Effect of Behaviour Modification on Studying and Procrastination University of Sydney Abstract A study was conducted to determine the effects of behaviour self-modification on the number of hours spent studying and procrastinating. The 141 participants were second year University students studying Psychology. Baseline behaviour was recorded for both studying and procrastination followed by a treatment week where each student selected to modify either studying or procrastination and planned and carried out their behaviour modification. Results were significant, revealing that those trying to decrease procrastination were successful in decreasing this behaviour, as well as increasing the alternative behaviour, studying. Similarly, students trying to increase studying were successful, as well as decreasing their procrastination. Overall, it was found that behaviour modification has significant effects on the amount of time spend studying and procrastinating. The Effect of Behaviour Modification on Studying and Procrastination Behaviour modification is an interesting aspect of Psychology as it gives people the opportunity to alter their behaviour for reasons that may include health, happiness, education or general wellbeing. Many researchers have found that behaviour self-modification programs are especially effective with immediate reinforcement and are more successful than other cognitive methods (Levitz Stunkard 1974; Galscow Klesges 1985). The effectiveness of these programs also depends on other factors such as the person’s commitment to change, the degree of preparation and the management of antecedents. In order to alter behaviour, it is more successful to partake in a behaviour modification program which includes reinforcements or punishments, rather than simply relying on other cognitive processes. One study, involving overweight people, showed a behaviour self-modification program which resulted in greater weight loss than other methods, including nutrition education (Levitz Stunkard 1974). Similarly the effectiveness of behaviour modification is seen in smokers who were able to abstain from smoking using self-reward strategies and positive self-statements at a greater rate than those who used other cognitive strategies (Galscow Klesges 1985). Immediate reinforcers have a much stronger effect on behaviour than a delayed punishment (Martin Pear 2007). Choosing a behaviour which will provide immediate gratification is often more likely to occur than an alternative behaviour, even if the punishment is somewhat severe. This includes cumulatively significant punishments, such as smoking increasing the risk of lung cancer, because the negative effect from each cigarette is too small to notice, whereas the immediate gratification produces enjoyment. This highlights the importance of immediate reinforcement when conducting a behaviour self-modification program. The methods of behaviour modification found to be successful vary, (Perri Richards 1977), however there are steps one can take to increase the likelihood of success. (Martin Pear 2007). Firstly, it is essential that problems are specified and goals are set. These goals should be in quantitative terms so that overall success can be easily determined. Secondly, there should be a commitment to change. This should be evident in the effort made to plan a successful behavioural modification including management of antecedents and appropriate reinforcements. A baseline of behaviour should be recorded for comparison with the following self-control program to quantify success and overall effect. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of behaviour modification on the number of hours spent studying and procrastinating. It was hypothesised that, in the treatment week, there would be a decrease in the number of hours spent procrastinating for the â€Å"decrease procrastination† group, and an increase in the number of hours spent studying in the â€Å"increase studying† group. Studying will be defined as any kind of reading, writing or other preparation which is related to the student’s University course work. It is the desired behaviour; Examples include reading background material for a lecture or tutorial, studying for quizzes or creating course notes. Procrastination will be defined as all other recreational activities with the exception of socialising and exercising. This is the delaying behaviour; Examples include watching TV, browsing the internet for pleasure or playing computer games. Method Subjects There were 715 second-year Psychology University students who were required to take part in this study as a tutorial exercise. Of these students, 628 created online accounts to record their behaviour. The number of students who successfully completed the task by recording data for all 8 days was 141. These 141 students provided all data used in this study. All students used data sheets to record their behaviour for all 8 days of the exercise. This data was logged online. Procedure Students were instructed to choose the behaviour that they wanted to change; They could decrease procrastination or increase studying. Students would, in the first four days, record both their studying and procrastination habits in a results table provided. Students were then required to devise their own strategy to either decrease procrastination or increase studying. These strategies aimed to complete goals set by the student which were improvements from their current state, but realistic and achievable. These plans included, preferably immediate to the behaviour being performed, reinforcement for the desired behaviour or punishment for the behaviour to be decreased. Since often this was not practical, there were options for alternative reinforcement/punishment schedules. Firstly, daily targets could be set to reach, or not exceed, a certain number of hours of study or procrastination. Secondly, rolling targets or limits could be used where appropriate reinforcement or punishment is given when a number of hours of a behaviour is met. Finally, students could use duration limits or targets on how long they engage in a behaviour once they have started. The independent variable was the 2 x (2) mixed design with the between subjects variables being modifying studying or procrastination, and the within-subjects variable being the targeted and non-targeted behaviour. The recorded hours became the dependant variable. Results There were no statistical differences found in the conditions of the baseline week. In the treatment week, time spent studying was found to be significantly different to the time spent procrastinating in the group who tried to decrease procrastination.

Project Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Project Management - Case Study Example This results into continuous problems hindering the realization of the project goals. The company is left with no choice but to hire another CEO Andre Gignac after twelve months to oversee the success of the project. Indeed their decision was a rewarding one. Andre organized staffs into various groups and delegated specific duties to the members so as to avoid confrontation arising from different departments. Provided motivational support which ensured every member was committed towards the course of project delivery. To the disbelief the management, the company had managed to achieve its objectives within three months something that was impossible with the predecessor. The hiring of Mr. Rogerge was purely based on assumptions and not on merit of having the best skills required to achieve objectives (Furman, 2011). Having knowledge about a concept does not necessarily mean one can be the best manager to oversee the ideas as Mr.Roberge has thought. The CEO found it hard to coordinate work between the different workforces at his disposal, was self-centered and had no best interest at hand to deliver on the project which eventually led to his failure. However this is contrary to what Andre Gignac did to the organization. He had experience and understands what management means and do not have to know IT skills for him to be a success. He understands the role of collective responsibility in the organization in the development of any project course (Furman, 2011). He clearly distinguishes duties and responsibility to persons to ensure a smooth flow of work. Andre provided encouragement, unity in the workforce by hosting evening parties. This has made the manager to achieve goals within the unexpected period of time. Hiring of well trained, qualified and experienced mangers complimented with a good design by integrating whole departments will make the organization to achieve its goals since smooth flow of work is ensured and commitment while

By suggesting the kinds of defense mechanisms that deadened human Essay

By suggesting the kinds of defense mechanisms that deadened human responses to horror, Ladies and Gentlemen, to the Gas Chamber, - Essay Example In 1923, Germany’s economy was in succession and its goods were sold abroad to secure the nations’ exports abroad. The industries that bribed politicians got bankrupt and people had to claim their jobs by working without being paid making them frustrated in the process. The situation in German’s economic sector was not well planned thus it affected the country greatly. This was because competition in the economy was rapidly increasing leading to a split in the government’s authority. This led to power sharing within the government, and the Germans were not contented with it because they got direct opposition from Berlin thus the parties become democratic champions as they were running the economy. It was believed in 1933 that the German government was collapsing as Franklin Roosevelt was not able to solve the crisis that was befalling them because the country was bankrupt and needed a lot of money for the top. Hitler came into power and had to make the eco nomy rise from its bankruptcy, by recruiting new members to direct them in SA. Hitler knew that he was making rushed decisions, and it was a hard task for him to accomplish alone, therefore help was required. Hitler transformed Germany into structures of the state, social law and the constitution of the society to attain his goal of stabilizing the state and free his nation from foreign powers and maintain geography at large. This was a mechanism that deadened human responses to horror as he grabbed the people unaware (Hunt, 625). The sanctions and poor economy convinced citizens that Hitler was not serious with stabilizing the economy because they were bankrupt. He made improvements in the government leading to a rise in the economy as he was obliged to pick his cabinet of National Socialists. Afterwards, Hitler came into power in a democratic way because he had stabilized the economy of the state without seeking help. All this led to an improved economy since profit rose above the minimal stabilizer. That was incredible and made anti-Nazi historians give up because of the defeat they had received from Hitler’s revolution that had brought changes to Germany. Hitler obtained plenary power that made him the nation’s supreme democratic making the Germans view him as a legend. During the First World War, Feldmarschall was fond of traditions, and Hitler wanted the traditions to take place so as to see the Reichstag to convince them (Hunt, 641). Germany was on top of the Reichswehr, which was an object of Hitler to courtship. Hitler appointed a chancellor without asking opinion from the rest of the committee and they got angry as it was done without their consent. Feldmarschall sent General von Hammerstein Equord who came to Hindenburg of general staff and disapproved. Hitler and Dr. Goebbels had taken control of nation radio and making it their tool to broadcast power hitherto. Hitler was carefully planning and managing soldiers for the great renewal as many government officials, army officers, lawyers and judges had abandoned their work. Hitler wanted to acquire officials and rectify the Reichstag. This would establish authority to govern virtual dictatorship to gain powers lawfully as the Germans constitution had amended. Hitler won the elections and Germany national government came up with a solution against political particulars. His intention was to devise plans from retirement

Relativism and Morality Essay Example for Free

Relativism and Morality Essay Is it ethical? Will it be right? Is it a small sacrifice for the betterment of the future? All these questions do not have exact answers. You can never give a straight cut answer to all the above questions. You can never exactly say that a particular thing is completely right or completely wrong. All this varies from people to people and culture to culture. Individual personalities have different philosophies regarding particular thought and belief. There is never completely a black or white it is in between. It is grey. This is relativism. Relativism can be defined â€Å"as the concept that points of view have no absolute truth or validity, having only relative, subjective value according to differences in perception and consideration†. According to relativism all views are considered valid. Well relative truth varies with people for example, a person prefers a red coloured car over black coloured car, where other person may disagree. True for one person is not true for another. So relative truth can’t be right or wrong. But greater than relative truth is Morality, where you see whether your actions are causing any harm to another and stop doing such things. Here which causes problems or harm someone should be considered as wrong. It is absolutely wrong on the part of our moral values to harm someone. There is a very fine line between morality and relative truth, moral values also varies from people to people and culture to culture but morality will never do any bad(even if it’s right for the other person). It is rightly said about moral by Ernest Hemingway â€Å"About morals, I know only that what is moral is what you feel good after and what is immoral is what you feel bad after. † There are some things that are absolutely wrong and therefore I agree with Lenn Goodman. He is right on his part in challenging relativism and I fully support him. Just suppose if everyone was allowed to do as they wish, what a horrid place this could have been. If everything was so relative and there was no right or wrong then one person could have killed other for his better future, and he would never have got any punishment. Because on his part, he was right. Also sometimes we have to rise above principles to challenge wrong. For example, America would have never got independence if slavery was discussed on principles. But if we see overall, it was a good thing going against the principles because slavery was the wrong being done. Same goes with the case of India’s independence where the freedom fighters were called terrorists just because they fought against the government for their own rights. But not every compromise is that easy to digest. It was wrong what happened with Germany in the first world war was bad but what followed in the second world war by Nazis may be a reaction was not tolerable. It was like removing a whole community from the world, that was worst. How can one have the right to destroy the being of the whole community or clan, just to satisfy one’s own selfish motives. Or you thing this is right for your own community or culture, but this is completely wrong. It is not human. Our moral values and love and respect for each other is what differentiates us from ruthless animals. Every human deserves respect, love and moral behaviour even if there is culture difference or some other difference. We all are made of same thing and thus have the same needs which mainly includes Respect. The main examples which truly challenge relativism are genocide, famine, terrorism, slavery, chid warrior and rape. Everyone has the right to life, no one can take away that right just because he thinks it’s right. Killing a single person and killing the whole community is different. Killing of whole community(genocide) being uglier, because it destroys not only dreams but destroy the being of the whole community, it can then well said to be extinct just like the bird Dodo. Genocide simply destroys a way of life. This is not humane. What the soviets did to Ukraine or Mao to China, was the part of a so called bigger plan, a small compromise. But a compromise which is difficult to live by. Millions of people lost their lives, and people lost their mother, father, brother and what not. This was simply wrong and cannot be considered relativism. The cultural revolution in China which was brought about by Mao, was wrong. It was relatively a right thing on the part of Mao. But it was wrong on the moral, ethical and human part. The number of Deaths during Mao’s period was about 70 million and he was ready to sacrifice 300 million. He had no right to control people’s life like that. This is where relativism should be challenge, because this is simply unfair and unacceptable. The other example is of terrorism, it’s also like mass killing of a community out of frustration and anger, which is illegal. As compared with the above example which is considered legal, as it is for some revolution; terrorism is you can say illegal. You don’t have the power to destroy someone’s life but you want to have that power, power is confused with violence. Terrorists say that they fight for some values, but they themselves destroy values by guns and bombs, by killing innocent people. By bombing school bus or by exploding some monument, to build fear in people. This is what the terrorists are doing, how can this be said to be fighting for your rights when today you can be creating people who want to take revenge from you, the same way you did, and someone else did to you. This is a never ending chain. Humanity will be the sufferer and this is completely wrong. It is unacceptable. The damage is devastating and not by any chance humane. Child warriors is also very wrong on the part of humanity. The innocence of child is lost, he becomes emotionless after all the what he suffers. There are around 300,000 child soldiers, it is legal to have children below 15 in the army, no one is convicted of it till now. They are even used as sex slaves and exploited. They grow up with these scars and in return are ready to give scars to others. War, genocide or terrorism whatever is there, whosoever is the winner, humanity will always be the looser. Innocence of people, their dreams to live a happy life, their achievements, what good they could have given to the world all get killed along with them because of the inhumane ways of so called humans, the ways being war, genocide, famine or terrorism. Slavery can be equalled to murder, but here it is the murder of one’s wishes, desires and dreams. The person is alive but his soul is no less then dead. Human trafficking mainly includes women and children. Women and children are mainly used in prostitution, as labors and for agriculture mainly men are trafficked. Around four million people are trafficked and people from Thailand, Vietnam, China, Mexico, Russia, and the Czech Republic are the victims. This is completely wrong. The use of humans here is not tolerable and unfair. It is taking advantage of other people’s weakness. This is not fair on part of humanity. Rape is also exploitation, it aims to abuse and humiliate the sufferer. It violates one’s personhood. It is an act of hate and not love. Rape is used even today in wars or genocide wars, it is a weapon to humiliate and abuse the opponent. This is not good at all, and should be stopped. It is wrong on the part of humanity. Here also humanity is the one that suffers. Exploitation of people for your own benefits has always been wrong and should be stopped. It takes away one’s freedom to live life his own way. Whether it is the case of genocide , warfare, murder, slavery, rape or child warrior, nothing can be considered right and can never be right even according to relativism. It is not moral, it is not humane. Even if there are relativistic truths in this world. And ethics and morals have evolved over time. It changes from people to people, culture to culture, with time and with place. Even then somehings are simply wrong when it comes to humanity. It is well known that two hundred years ago there was slavery in America. It was considered right at that time, we can consider it was right, that doesn’t mean it was actually right. It was inhumane. If this was not thought at that time, then slavery would have existed till now in America. If it was not wrong even at that time, then no one would have made an effort to stop this exploitation of human being. There should be global moral norms made, inorder to stop this evil on human race. Everything should not be left on relativism and such logics should not be given, that is is right according to me and it is for the betterment of the society. Then it should be made clear that by doing genocides and practicing slavery, the society will never get better. People should rise above their culture limitation, to achieve a greater goal, i. e. success of humanity. By practicing norms that benefit us but without compromising other people’s life, dreams and freedom. This will make the world a better place to live. People should see to it that everyone has the right to life, and we are no one to take it away from him. Everyone should take care of others emotion, ritual, feeling and should not violate it, this is right for sure. Individuals should see to ot that everything contributes in the success of humanity, and then everything can be considered right. This I can say for sure is Absolute Truth and not Relative Truth. It is rightly said by Martin Luther King â€Å"The first principle of value that we need to rediscover is this: that all reality hinges on moral foundations. †

Long Days Journey into Night Eugene by ONeill - Character Analysis of Mary :: Long Days Journey into Night

Long Day's Journey into Night Eugene by O'Neill - Character Analysis of Mary In the play  ¡Ã‚ °Long Day ¡Ã‚ ¯s Journey into Night, ¡Ã‚ ± by Eugene O ¡Ã‚ ¯Neill, the writer depicts a typical day of the Tyrone family, whose once-close family has deteriorated over the years for a number of reasons: Mary ¡Ã‚ ¯s drug addiction, Tyrone Jamie and Edmund ¡Ã‚ ¯s alcoholism, Tyrone ¡Ã‚ ¯s stinginess, and the sons` pessimistic attitude toward future. In the play, all of the four characters are miserable about life, and they all remember the past and try to escape from reality by drinking alcohol or taking drugs. Among these four characters, Mary is a typical and special one; she is the most tragic character in the play. She used to be an innocent girl with beautiful dreams (to become a nun and a pianist) and a strong religious faith centered on the Virgin Mary. However, her marriage destroyed her dreams and weakened her faith. Her husband Tyrone fails to realize the promises he made to Mary, which makes her lose her faith in the marriage. The morphine addi ction drags her down and makes her unconscious about whether she lives in the past or present. The title of the play is a  ¡Ã‚ °Long Day ¡Ã‚ ¯s Journey into Night ¡Ã‚ ±, but Mary, as she keeps taking morphine, travels mentally back to the past when she has fewer problems and happier life. Thus, for Mary, it is actually a long day ¡Ã‚ ¯s journey into the past. In Act One, there are three points that are important to the developing of the character of Mary. One is that she realizes her beauty is fading away, and she is in the stages of decline; another is that she refuses to admit that there is a health problem with her and her son Edmund. Finally, there is the issue of Mary ¡Ã‚ ¯s specific idea of what a  ¡Ã‚ °home ¡Ã‚ ± is. At the beginning of the play, Tyrone and Jamie stare at Mary, and make her self-conscious (p27); they talk about her hair and remember the beautiful hair that Mary had when she was young. Mary realizes that she is getting old and she is very anxious about this, which is reflected when she asks people what is wrong with her hair several times. One of Mary ¡Ã‚ ¯s central flaws is her refusal to admit that there is a problem with herself or Edmund. She lies to her family many times about being cured, and she blames them for suspecting her. Long Day's Journey into Night Eugene by O'Neill - Character Analysis of Mary :: Long Day's Journey into Night Long Day's Journey into Night Eugene by O'Neill - Character Analysis of Mary In the play  ¡Ã‚ °Long Day ¡Ã‚ ¯s Journey into Night, ¡Ã‚ ± by Eugene O ¡Ã‚ ¯Neill, the writer depicts a typical day of the Tyrone family, whose once-close family has deteriorated over the years for a number of reasons: Mary ¡Ã‚ ¯s drug addiction, Tyrone Jamie and Edmund ¡Ã‚ ¯s alcoholism, Tyrone ¡Ã‚ ¯s stinginess, and the sons` pessimistic attitude toward future. In the play, all of the four characters are miserable about life, and they all remember the past and try to escape from reality by drinking alcohol or taking drugs. Among these four characters, Mary is a typical and special one; she is the most tragic character in the play. She used to be an innocent girl with beautiful dreams (to become a nun and a pianist) and a strong religious faith centered on the Virgin Mary. However, her marriage destroyed her dreams and weakened her faith. Her husband Tyrone fails to realize the promises he made to Mary, which makes her lose her faith in the marriage. The morphine addi ction drags her down and makes her unconscious about whether she lives in the past or present. The title of the play is a  ¡Ã‚ °Long Day ¡Ã‚ ¯s Journey into Night ¡Ã‚ ±, but Mary, as she keeps taking morphine, travels mentally back to the past when she has fewer problems and happier life. Thus, for Mary, it is actually a long day ¡Ã‚ ¯s journey into the past. In Act One, there are three points that are important to the developing of the character of Mary. One is that she realizes her beauty is fading away, and she is in the stages of decline; another is that she refuses to admit that there is a health problem with her and her son Edmund. Finally, there is the issue of Mary ¡Ã‚ ¯s specific idea of what a  ¡Ã‚ °home ¡Ã‚ ± is. At the beginning of the play, Tyrone and Jamie stare at Mary, and make her self-conscious (p27); they talk about her hair and remember the beautiful hair that Mary had when she was young. Mary realizes that she is getting old and she is very anxious about this, which is reflected when she asks people what is wrong with her hair several times. One of Mary ¡Ã‚ ¯s central flaws is her refusal to admit that there is a problem with herself or Edmund. She lies to her family many times about being cured, and she blames them for suspecting her.

Froebel Kindergarten Essay

Freidrich W. A. Froebel is best known as the founder of kindergarten. He was a German educationalist. Froebel was born in 1782 in a village in Germany. His childhood was difficult because his mother died when he was a baby and his father abandoned him. Froebel was given to his uncle’s care. Between 1808-1810 he attended the training institute run by John Pestalozzi at Yverdon. Froebel left the institution accepting the basic principles of Pestalozzi’s theory: permissive school atmosphere, emphasis on nature, and the object lesson. Froebel, however, was a strong idealist whose view of education was closely related to religion. He believed that everything in this world was developed according to the plan of God. He felt that something was missing in Pestalozzi’s theory: the â€Å"spiritual mechanism† that, according to Froebel, was the foundation of early learning. Froebel’s philosophy of education rested on four basic ideas: free self-expression, creativity, social participation, and motor expression. Froebel began to focus on the needs of children just prior to entering school. He envisioned a place attended by 4-6 year olds where children would be nurtured and protected from outside influences—like plants in a garden. Froebel decided to call his school kindergarten, which in German means â€Å"child garden. † Froebel began a training institute for the teachers of his schools. He believed that teachers should be highly respected people with values that the children should imitate. The teacher should also be a sensitive, open, and easily approachable person. Froebel’s first kindergarten was founded in 1837 in Blakenburg Germany. It featured games, play, songs, stories, and crafts to stimulate imagination and develop physical and motor skills. The materials in the room were divided into two categories: â€Å"gifts† and â€Å"occupations. † Gifts were objects that were fixed in form such as blocks. The purpose was that in playing with the object the child would learn the underlying concept represented by the object. Occupations allowed more freedom and consisted of things that children could shape and manipulate such as clay, sand, beads, string etc. There was an underlying symbolic meaning in all that was done. Even clean up time was seen as â€Å"a final concrete reminder to the child of God’s plan for moral and social order. † In 1848, the Prussian government ordered these schools to be closed because they did not agree with Froebel’s ideas. Then Froebel died in 1852, not knowing the impact his work would have on the U. S. school system. Then many Germans immigrated to the United States after the German Revolution. Among them were women trained in the Froebel system of education. It was these women who were responsible for bringing kindergarten to the United States. The first U. S. kindergarten was for German immigrant children in Wisconsin and taught in German. Then in 1873 kindergarten was introduced in the public American schools. Freidrich Froebel’s ideas provided the major direction for kindergarten curriculum during the last half of the nineteenth century. Many of his ideas can still be observed in kindergarten today: learning through play, group games, goal oriented activities, and outdoor time. Now applying Froebel’s philosophy of education to the Bahamas. From the National Task Force on Education (1994) Final report. This was stated about Pre-Schools. PICTURE. But yes we do have active kindergartens in many schools. I know for sure on the island of Eleuthera there is the kindergarten section in all of the primary schools. But upon my research I found that there are kindergarten sections in only a few schools here in New Providence. Example: The Bahamas Academy School. Here is a quick look at their curriculum. Then there is one in Yellow Elder Gardens and Elizabeth Estates. REPORTING TODAY FROM THE EDUCATIONAL CHANNEL, I’M VASHTE’ NAIRN.

Necessity is the mother of invention Essay

Introduction Rationale This research topic â€Å"necessity is the mother of invention. Evaluate this statement in relation to scientific and technological experiment.† was chosen for studying in the area of informatics study. However, the research topic was seemed to be in the philosophical term to understand the basic need of technology more than the informatics subject, which deals with creating and developing of computer study. So that this topic needed past experience and historical background to be evaluated, but didn’t need much in education background because the topic wasn’t related to the theory or language of computer study. The topic in this area was very interested for future study because it could helps in understanding and forecasting the need of society need when developing or creating new technology or inventions which lead to the success in business. These are the fact of this chosen topic. The analysis of the research topic The research question is â€Å"Necessity is the mother of invention. Evaluate this statement in relation to scientific and technological experimentation†. The key words that show the content of the question are â€Å"Necessity is the mother of invention†. The relationship of this question is to show the relation between necessity and invention that necessity is the cause of the invention or not. The requirement of the question is to prove the relationship between necessity and invention by evaluates the statement according to scientific and technological experiment. The proposes of the thesis are to show that to what extent does necessity be the mother of invention and to evaluate according to scientific and technological experimentation. Three areas were analyzed during the study. These three areas, which are communication, industry, and medicine, were studied in the area that involve in scientific and technological experimentation. The communication was studied to understand its necessity and invention of the present. The industry was studied to analyze the situation of necessity in the economical competition,  which lead to the use of invention. The medicine was studied to show why it is very necessary to human life and what are the alternative inventions that come after. So all evidences were collected to support the thesis of the research question and its purposes that the study defends an argument on the proving of the necessity that lead to the invention. The diagram on the next page shows the structure of the analysis of the research topic. Data Collection The Research Method The research was carried out in three steps. The first step was to understand the research topic by searching for definition, background history, and general information from the source books and journal articles. Then all the information was evaluated to find out which areas are mostly involved in the research topic and range, which is the scientific and technological experimentation. The second step was the collection of data to find the relevant information. The information was analyzed according to the relevancy to the research area, the objectivity of the author, and the period spent on collecting of the data. Then third step, the limitation of the information will be analysis on the certain aspects of the topic areas of the scientific and technological experimentation. Therefore, the research will focus only the necessity and invention in the areas of scientific and technological experimentation. Most of the sources that use in the research were some kinds of business and socia l case study such as â€Å"Cleft palate case in the medicine study†(Singer and Bergthold, 2001, pp.2161-2230). Annotated Bibliography Cotterell, A. (1988). An overview of research and co-operation in advanced information technology. In A. Cotterell, Advanced Information Technology in the New Industrial Society (pp.1-27). New York: Oxford University Press. Written for expert manager who involve in information technology that want to find out which technologies are matched for their business  area. This chapter describe about new technologies that involves in industry and focus on future technology. The improvements of communication and computer storage are used to compare in industry area to explain how necessity are they. Also, this chapter explains the expert system in new technology to shown that new technologies have invented new ideas in the industry. Fuglsang L. (1993). The â€Å"soft† information technologies and its critics: the risk of wild policy making in science and technology. In L. Fuglsang, Technology and New Institution (pp.54-96). Denmark: Copenhagen. Written for computer managers that involve in information system research and development of technology in future research. These chapter focuses on what invention creates by the risks which cause when new science and technology are emerging while old are crisis. The history of technology over 50 years is used to prove that risks cause necessity to create invention of new technology. Hall, B.J. (2000). Use of the pulmonary artery catheter in critically ill patients: Was invention the mother of necessity? Journal of the American Medical Association, 283(19), 2577-2578. This article has been written for doctor and hospital that involve in surgery area. This article discusses two studies regarding the use of pulmonary artery catheters in critically ill patients and the process of its future evaluation. The use of pulmonary artery catheters is necessary for the medicals and surgical intensive units (ICUs). It helps to manage critically ill patients. Singer, S., & Bergthold L. (2001). Cosmetic vs. reconstructive surgery for cleft palate: A window into medical necessity debate. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286(17), 2162-2203. This article has been written for doctor in plastic surgery and people who interest in cosmetic surgery. Medical necessity is a term that  used in most commercial health plan to create invention. This article is focus about plastic surgery for a cleft palate, and the debate about whether the surgery is cosmetic or reconstructive. But because of medical necessity can mean different things to different people and organization, so it could be both general meaning. Stewart, J. (1992). Technological change and industrial location. In J. Stewart, The Management of Science and Technology (pp.110-192). Denmark: The Australian National University. This book has been written for educator and manager that involve in information technology and works on the productive area of research. This chapter focus on Just-in-Time system, which is the new industry system that create by the competition in the world economic. Because of competition in the market industrial investment, the Just-in-Time system is used to because it is necessary to control cost and increase profit. Tate, A. N., Clayton B.S. & Gourley K.G. (2001). Development and implementation of a managed care rotation in medical necessity review: Exposing students to new opportunities. Journal of American Pharmaceutical Education, 65(3), 261-307. The purpose of this journal is for fourth-year PHD students to design a rotation in managed care through medical necessity review. The rotation involved working with the Tennessee department of Health’s TennCare Appeals Units. It shows how the impact of pharmacists can have on patients’ lives. They claim by using professional development experience to show the advantage of utilizing pharmacists. The Literature Review The five articles that are reviewed focus mainly on scientific and technological experiments, which separate into three major areas. These three areas are communication, industry, and medicine. The writers ‘s attitude toward the study of information technology and science, which are  used in society, raised a very detailed discussion and neatly analysis on the proving of necessity as mother of invention. The sub-topics in each area contain important information involve in necessity of both individual and social points of view. Evidence is provided completely from all sources and can accurately be used to prove that necessity is the mother of invention as reasons and evidences. The purpose of the review is to make a clearly analysis on these six articles toward similarities and differences in their areas. The first article, an overview of research and co-operation in advanced information technology by Arthur Cotterell, mostly represents in the area of communication. In this article, he discusses that the communication is important to the future of society. Cotterell compares the different between old and new mediums of communication, which lead to the social necessity. He explained the medium clearly in details and supported by using a city named Swindon (Cotterell, 1988, p.26), which wildly use fiber optic (medium) as his evidence. The successful of the fiber optic is picked up to prove his documents. In the second article by Jenny Stewart, â€Å"Technological change and industrial location†, represents in industry area, which focus mainly in competition in market industry investment and scarcity of natural resource for industrial manufacturing. She points and explains the effect of competition and scarcity lead to the change of new system. The Just-In-Time (JIT) system, which is a new information system, is used to compare how efficiency it is with the old system. This system is the very successful system that helps reduce and eliminate cost, waste, and speed in production. She analyse automotive industry in Australia, which success in this system, as her evidence. The smaller, more technological advanced players, and accurate in the industry is the main point of the invention in this article. The third article, which is written by Fuglsang, in the article, he expresses the meaning specifically of how and why invention is created (Fuglsang, 1993, pp.54-96). The main point of his article is to show that when the time is running and population is increasing, they cause the old invention to become crisis and it is necessary to invent something new to replace the old. This article can be used as theory and reason to explain and clearly support all three areas of communication, industry, and  medicine. The phases of invention development are used to show the steps of scientific and technological improvement. In each phase provide the evidence of the development of invention clearly since past fifty years when a manual turning-machine was created to the automatic machine are used. He also supports his evidence by using the development of American technology. He mentions that the growing application of new technologies in society creates a need, so it is very important to studies more about technology network in political process. The forth article written by Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold, they mainly represents in the area of medicine. This article focuses on medical necessity by compare the different between cosmetic surgery and reconstructive surgery. They support the document that medical necessity in the area of surgery is really necessity by using â€Å"health plans† (Singer and Bergthold, 2001, p.2162). This health plans is medical necessity standard that use permanen tly all over the world. They also comment generally that social viewing among medical necessity in surgery is also included in some case. The case of a cleft palate patient is used to analysis and discusses the different between cosmetic and reconstructive case. Then they argue and support that medical necessity determinations involving the condition that proven to be especially problematic not self-desirable. The fifth article written by Jesse B. Hall, â€Å"Use of the pulmonary artery catheter in critically ill patients: Was invention the mother of necessity?† the article show that pulmonary artery catheters is necessary to most patients that involve in heart, lung, and blood problems. He analysed this technology from 10217 patients in 34 medical and surgical intensive care units (ICUs) in 1998. According to Hall, the pulmonary artery is used in the case that no medicine can used to cure the sickness. He suggests that this invention still has high risk, so this is very necessary to improve this invention to help critically ill patients and the process of its future evaluation. All issues in five sources, which written by Arthur Cotterell, Jenny Stewart, Fuglsang, Jesse B. Hall and Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold, are considered very important to show the audience the historical and current significance of continuity about necessity as mother of invention in the term of scientific and technological experiment. This is because when the old  invention is considered as the necessity for the future improvement, the continuing improvement to the new invention will be created. Arthur Cotterell writes about the use of communication medium during the past 10 years until the use of new medium today (Cotterell, 1988, p.26). His examples of twisted pair and fiber optic cable show the fact that the why the increase of performance of new medium are used by the change in society. It shows the audience clearly the distance between time in the past and present of social necessity. This article also talks about the rapidly increases of necessity which lead to the improvem ent of new medium in the future continuously. In the issue of Jenny Stewart and Fuglsang have the similar area in the industry that also express the same meaning of need in the industry. Jenny Stewart shows the change in industry system by using automotive industry in Australia since 1990 (Stewart, 1992, p.124). Fuglsang shows the rationalization phase (Fuglsang, 1993, p.56), which is one of 4, phases in technological invention development. This phase analyses from the past 50 years of the development. Both Jenny Stewart and Fuglsang’s article shows the change in the industry, which involves in commercial interests and competition. This article helps to show the link between competition and tutorial in the industry, which leads to the use of the new invention. In the rest of the issues from Jesse B. Hall, and Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold are involved in medicine area that involve in the surgery. Jesse B. Hall talks about the result of the use of pulmonary artery catheter (Hall, 2000, pp.2577-2578). This result shows the need of cosmetic surgery among the people who have problem of the natural disable of the body and also explain the use of the invention to help solve the problem. Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold article also help to shows that since from the past the meaning of medical necessity is mean only reconstruction to the normal state of patients. Both issues from Jesse B. Hall, and Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold come form the different medical case but they have similar thesis, which are medical necessity that lead to the invention of new medical invention. All the writers come from the different areas but they have the same meaning of their issues that the continuing of the time lead to the increase of need of invention in both new and improvement. So that their issues are strongly support the statement that necessity creates the invention in the part of science and technological experimentation. There are three articles which surely are the objective of the writers when they present research their research results and evidence to support their arguments because these articles provide complete information and details of the document. The first article, which is objective, by Arthur Cotterell supports and expresses the meaning of his argument clearly by using the complete examples and information of communication mediums (Cotterell, 1988, pp.1-27). He shows the detail number of capacity, speed, range, and material made in each medium sample clearly. He also compares the different in each medium by mathematical calculation. This helps audience to easily understand the different even technical term. The second article, which is objective, from Fuglsang is objective because he has the acknowledgment from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States (Fuglsang, 1993, pp.54-96). His article and support evidences come from the case studies in Denmark, US, and Sweden. Th ey are emphasis and detail clearly on the influence of culture, organizational choices and institutional concerns through research. The third article, which is objective, from Jenny Stewart is objective because her argument and sources come from the federalism research centre (Stewart, 1992, pp.110-192). She provides the information clearly in the example of automotive industry in Australia in percentage of profit, time, competitor, and increase of product output. The other two articles from Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold, and Jesse B. Hall are not objective because they provide the information too general. It is general because the information they provide is not specific in number of result from the succession in medical treatment. Both of them show only the result from the invention by using only reasons, causes and effects after treatment (Singer and Bergthold, 2001, 2162-2203). This is because most of the article is the summary of the result of the cleft palate research, so that they just mention about the need and future development, which result from the succession of cleft palate surgery. Although they don’t provide completely information, the area that they work is in medicine area, which concentrates only the result of necessity. So that their article can express their main ideas easy and clearly understand by using reason, cause, and effect documents. By compare all the articles which each others, the information that provided by the authors are enough to support the necessity of  invention by using their specific details and information, research, reasons, causes, and effects. Their sources are considered as essential in comparative and explaining the necessity as mother of information in scientific and technological experiment. The interpretation of data is clearly in all five sources because all data can be analyse to evaluate the need of the research topic in relation to scientific and technological experiment easily. The relationship between the necessity and the invention is linked in clearly understand. There are three different ways in their interpretation of data. The first way is represented by the article of Arthur Cotterell. He interprets his information by explain the detail of old communication medium and new communication medium in technical term and estimated calculation of speed, capacity, and range. For example, he explains that twisted-pair could carry 10Khz but if compare with fiber optic (Cotterell, 1988, p.26), fiber optic is faster than twisted-pair million times. He also clarifies the use of fiber optic that it uses in linking between two or more networks and twisted-pair uses in local phone line. The second way is represented by Fuglsang and Jenny Stewart. They interpret their sources by using the result of the time in the industrial development. They show the change and need since from the past and result of it in the present. The time between standardization and rationalization is used by the author to show the relation of the improvement of the invention from first creation to the first development (Fuglsang, 1993, 56-56). The third way is represented by Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold, and Jesse B. Hall. They interpret their sources by using the result of their information, which is the specific in medication. They summarize the result of medication from the patient and use it to support their argument. The research result of the patient in a cleft palate case is used to analysis the term of medical necessity in the surgery area of medicine. The result after the surgery is used to compare that the surgery is reconstructive surgery not cosmetic surgery. In comparison of all the writers, they interpret all data clearly. All the data are separated into three areas, which Arthur Cotterell is in communication area, Fuglsang and Jenny Stewart are in Industry area, and Singer S. and Linda Bergthold, and Hall are in medicine area. There interpretation of data can support each others and express their  understanding in analyse that necessity as mother of invention clearly. There are three articles that are conducted the research thoroughly in order to prove the points by the writers. The complete research could help the claim of research topic to become more strong and reliable without being counter by other argument. Arthur Cotterell, Singer S. and Linda Bergthold, and Jenny Stewart are the writers who do their research thoroughly. Arthur Cotterell researches neatly on the information system research, which express all the meaning, material used, quality, and performance of each medium between communications clearly (Cotterell, 1988, p.15-27). He use a city name Swindon to do his research. This city is widely use in fiber optic and coaxial cable to link between communication which mean that it is a very efficiency sources to use on communication research. Singer S. and Linda Bergthold research on the medical necessity on surgery course. They use a patient who was born with cleft palate problem as their research (Singer and Bergthold, 2001, pp.2162-218 0). They clearly research on the result before and after that patient take the surgery. They also research on the health plan of the medical standard and analyse it with medical theory as the reconstructive medication. Jenny Stewart researches on the Australia industry. She finds out that the reasons of necessity in industry come from the competition, which lead to the need of more flexible, fast, and efficiency technology(Stewart, 1992, p.124-192). This led her to find out the new system, Just-in-Time system, and research it on the Australia automotive industry. She has the result of how efficiency and profitability it is. The other sources from Fuglsang and Jesse B. Hall are not researched thoroughly because they get the information from general source directly without fully detail. Fuglsang picks up the history to speak to support the argument but the detail on his suggestion seem not clear on details and analysis. From Arthur Cotterell, Singer S., and Linda Bergthold, and Jenny Stewart research, they are very to understand their point of view from their research and directly connect audience to the understanding. The clearly details and information of their research link their ideas to the necessity as mother of invention in the scientific and technological experiment. From five sources, there are four sources that provide practical and  realistic suggestion by the writers. The practical and realistic of suggestion can help the article to become more clear and ease of understanding. First is Jenney Stewart, she suggests that future of the industry needs smaller, more technological advanced players, and accuracy (Stewart, 1992, p.125). The writer suggestion shows that her study is very important to the use of technology for the future use. Her suggestion is proved by her comparative of old technology and new technology that show the change of size, quality, quantity, and speed. Second is Arthur Cotterell, he suggested that by the help of computer-aided design would help to avoid a lot of tentative material cutting. The writer suggestion shows that his study is very important for the industry to increase their performance of the system. This is very useful in showing the relationship between necessity and invention. Third is Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold, they suggest that cosmetic or treatments intended primarily to improve appearance is exclude in medical necessity standard (Singer and Bergthold, 2001, p.2162). The writers’ suggestions are used for people to understand that the purpose of surgery is different in some case because some case could count as personal desirable such as cosmetic. This shows the relation between medical necessity and invention clearly. They support their suggestion by evaluate the cleft palate in the medical necessity term and health plans. Forth is Fuglsang, he suggests that the growing application of new technologies in society creates a need to assign a more offensive and organized role to technology studies networks in the political process. This suggestion shows that his detail on study is very important for who is interested in technological development. The writer proves his suggestion by evaluate and show the need over past 50 years of the development of information and communication technologies in four phases (Fuglsang, 1993, p.55-58). From all the suggestion of all writers could help the audience to know what are the main interests in on the articles of the writers, which are very useful. There is no surely use of expert opinion from all the writers. They haven’t pick up any expert opinion but they adapt to use another people and place from other sources as their expert opinion. The expert opinion on the article of Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold is not mentioned clearly. They  use the term physician as their expert opinion to help support their argument in consider appropriate medication for a patient, such as treatment intended primarily to improve appearance. As same as Sara Singer and Linda Bergthold, Jenny Stewart doesn’t use expert opinion but she uses other opinion, Lamming (1998), who is one from her source. Lamming talks about the industry remaining effectively in â€Å"stress period†. This opinion helps audience understand the best period of industry development. In the article of Fuglsang L., this writer use Sloth Andersen and Slavo Radosevic, who are not mention clearly who are they, as the expert opinion. They talk about an innovation forum, which help to support the writer about the change of technology during a century so that the view of technological change would be see as the important to the new invention. The rest of the writers do not have any expert opinion to support their argument. But in the case of their writing, the support of expert opinion is not important because the evidences and examples are enough to call as expert opinion in the case of science and technological experiment. In conclusion, all of the five articles are clearly review, analyse, and can be reliable. All the sources talks in the areas of communication, industry, and medicine by using variety of evidence and alternative ways of using expert opinion. The objectivity of each writers are confirm in all sources and the interpretation are very clear. The thoroughness of treatment of the subject matter could confidentially be used from the analysis. Each suggestion from all writers are mentioned mostly point to the future use and analysis. For further research the study of more variety of necessity in creating invention must be more research and study to express their meaning widely in different area. This could help to look and analysis more widely in today and future development of invention. But the main point of all reviews is to find out the best ways to the result of successful future. The Limitations of research This research limited by certain factors. The research was limited by some limitations of the topic. The personal factor was caused by the research topic is not directly related to the past experience and educational  background but mostly related to the philosophical area which is not computer study. This caused the lack of some specific or direct information that could help analyze the topic more efficiency. Another reason is the topic question is some kind of question that can answer in two ways that people could agree and disagree depends one the personal opinion so that the degree of the answer to the question is not strong enough. This caused some part of the argument easy to be counter by some situation in both side of agree and disagree. The suggestions for future study The problems of limitation of research need some suggestions to be made for future study. Firstly to solve the problem of lacking in specific education background, this research needs the specific education of philosophy and psychology to help provide more specific and strong supported information for the term of human necessity. This can help to improve the supported argument of the essay to become more reliable. This future study can do by focus on the continuous of inventions in each area in term of psychology, which will be very helpful in this research. The research doesn’t need to find out the started point or the first creation of the invention because this essay was only focusing in present invention. Second future study is by searching more support from the expert opinion to help solve the limitation of unstable argument due to the meaning of research topic, which is too wide in general. The more researched findings of supported expert opinions can strongly help to support the argument and make the research become more reliable. This could be done by focus on the expert opinions that involve in the succession in each area of industry, medicine, and communication. The success of expert opinions is more reliable and couldn’t be counter by other argument easily. In conclusion, if all suggestions of future study are completely finished the research will not have any blank spaces to be counter by other counter argument.